"Writing isn't hard; no harder than ditch-digging."|
     -American Author Patrick Dennis (Rosten, 1994, p. 531)

"When in doubt, have two guys come through the door with guns."
     -American Mystery Writer Raymond Chandler (Rosten, 1994, p. 531)

Writing - and especially academic writing - is a learned behavior.  The more you read, and the more you write yourself, the better you will become.  The following guidelines should help you as you prepare written work for my classes.  Despite the quote from Mr. Dennis, writing need not be back-breaking labor; and, while Mr. Chandler's advice may help the blossoming mystery writer, it does little to help the student struggling with a term paper. 

There are several things to keep in mind about the guidelines provided below:

1. I expect you to follow them for all out-of-class written assignments that I make.  Whether it's a one-page reaction paper due at the next class meeting, or a semester-long project, I expect you to take writing seriously.  If you fail to do so, you should not expect a good, or even a passing, grade on the assignment.

2. In these guidelines, I will address common errors that students often make.  As I continue to grade papers semester after semester, there are a number of common errors that occur regularly.  I want to help you avoid these pitfalls.

3. Please spend some time reviewing these guidelines.  Consult me for questions only after you have read these guidelines.  I do not mean to sound Draconian in this document, but if you pay close attention to the material below, I'm convinced that your papers will be better for it.  My goal is not to make writing assignments more difficult, but to strengthen your ability to communicate in writing - a particularly important skill in the field of criminal justice!

APA Style

The field of criminal justice utilizes the stylistic guidelines of the American Psychological Association, commonly referred to as APA style.  Accordingly, I encourage you to familiarize yourself with APA guidelines as contained within the most recent Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2001).  In addition to citation styles (see below), the Publication Manual also contains some more general guidelines about paper style and formatting.  It is important to recognize that other disciplines may use other styles (for instance, the Modern Language Association, or MLA, style).  While these are valid styles within their own rights, they are not the accepted standard within the discipline of criminal justice.  Therefore, I require the use of APA style in all papers you produce for my courses.

Preparation

Preparation is essential.  You should take your writing assignments seriously and be prepared to devote an appropriate amount of time for them.  The practical reason for this is that students who take the time required to seriously consider and prepare a written assignment generally do better than those who attempt to complete it five minutes before the start of class.  I realize that everyone - myself included - has obligations other than those imposed by one particular class.  However, this does not excuse you from taking responsibility for meeting (or failing to meet) the requirements of the class.

There is also a second, equally compelling, reason for adequately preparing a written assignment.  That is - you should take pride in your work!  What does it say about you if you're satisfied to just slop something down on a word processor and hand it in without proofreading?  Your papers make an impression on me.  They tell me about your ability to research, think critically, and write, but they also speak volumes about your work ethic and attitude.  Be sure that the impression made by your papers is a favorable one (if you need an incentive, think "background investigators").  More importantly, please do not allow yourself to accept mediocrity!  You should always strive to ensure that your academic performance is at the highest level possible.  To be honest, I don't even want to read your papers if they don't represent your best work.  I'm offended by students who have the gall to turn in crap and expect me to seriously evaluate it.  Doing so would waste both of our time. 

On a more positive note, here are some guidelines to help you prepare for written work:

1. Choose a work environment free from distraction.  You may think that you write better with the television on, or while you're inebriated, or while you're at a party, but it's probably not true.  Writing is a thoughtful process.  You will have to think critically, whether it's to look for relationships between research studies or to adequately communicate and defend your opinion about a controversial question.  If all else fails, there are many often-empty study carrels in the library that you can use as a location to formulate your thoughts.
2. Start your work early.  I realize that you have a busy schedule, and that it's difficult to balance your social life, work life, and academic life.  However, while cliché, remember that you are in college for academics first!  You will find written assignments to be much less tedious if you aren't forced to cram them at the last minute.  Also, starting early gives you the chance to review the requirements of the assignment, as questions if you have them, write a draft, proofread, and revise.  For those of you who prefer to live by schedules, it's not a bad idea to block a certain amount of time - at the same day and time each week - to work on assignments for class.
3. Always read the instructions!  A disturbingly common error is that students sometimes turn in good - even excellent - papers, that do not meet the requirements of the assignment.  You should not assume that all paper assignments are the same, because they are not.  Pay attention to the guidelines for the assignment and be sure that you address them all.  Even if you write a beautiful paper, worthy of Nobel laüreate status, if it doesn't satisfactorily complete the assignment you should not expect to earn course credit. However, I do encourage you to be creative as you complete assignments.  Realize that there are many ways - some mundane, others interesting - to address an assignment.
4. Quantity does not outweigh quality.  For some assignments, I will specify strict page limitations (i.e., "this paper should be at least six but no more than eight pages").  In these cases, please adhere to the requirements.  However, for most assignments, I will only give general guidelines (i.e., "this paper should be around a page or so") or no guidelines at all (i.e., "this paper should be long enough to adequately answer the question").  You should always write for quality, not quantity.  Don't obsess about page limits - but do use common sense.  If I say a paper should be a page or so, there is no need for a 20 page response.  Likewise, if I ask for an opinion paper on a relatively complex topic, do not assume that a one or two paragraph answer will suffice.  The general rule is that you should make sure that you address key points in a sufficient level of detail.  Turning in 10 pages for a five page assignment does not automatically impress me or guarantee you a good grade.  On the one hand, you might be so excited about the subject that you want to elaborate at length, brilliantly - which would probably be ok.  On the other hand, you may be rambling or just writing to fill space - which would annoy me.  So, don't make page limitations the key focus of your writing process.
5. Ask questions.  If you don't understand something, ask me.  More specifically, ask me before the paper is due.  I will not take grading complaints seriously if you never consulted me about the assignment, especially if you had a long time to work on it.  The best ways to contact me are by talking to me immediately before or after class, dropping by the office during my office hours, or e-mailing me.  However, realize that I may not be in my office outside of office hours and that I am not wedded to my e-mail.  If you e-mail me and I don't check my e-mail before the paper is due, I absolve myself of responsibility.  Plan ahead - don't ask questions at the last minute.  Doing so suggests to me that you aren't prepared and that you have started the assignment late.  While it's true that some people (including myself!) work well at deadlines, doing so means that they miss out on the opportunity to ask questions.
6. Understand the research process.  Some of your papers may require you to utilize outside source material.  Please refer to the handout, also on my webpage, "Doing Criminal Justice Research at Radford University."  Realize that research takes time.  Generally speaking, I am suspicious when all of your sources are internet materials, so be prepared to physically go to the library (and in so doing, understand that the library is not open 24 hours a day!).  Generally, the longer you have to complete a research-based assignment, the more sophisticated the research I will expect to see.  And, if I tell you, "you must include at least two outside sources for this project," it is entirely possible that you may need to consult three or four outside sources to thoroughly understand the subject - don't work to the minimum number of sources; work towards a good understanding of your topic.   

Timeliness

Papers must be handed in at the beginning of class on the due date.  Late arrivals to class may result in a paper not being accepted.  Do not expect exceptions to the policies as they are stated in the syllabus. 

Here are some examples of excuses that have been attempted in the past - unsuccessfully!

1. The dog ate my paper (although with Dr. Burke and my dogs, this is entirely possible, and even probable).
2. I left the paper at home - can I turn it in right after class? (No.)
3. I didn't think it was due today.
4. My printer didn't work/my computer crashed/other technological issues (Plan ahead! Save files in multiple places and don't be in the position of printing a paper five minutes before class starts).
5. I didn't have time to do it because of work/organizations/etc.
6. I had tests in the two classes before this one that I had to study for.
7. I had a (non-emergency) doctor's appointment/job interview/etc. during class (don't schedule these during my class time!).
8. As a general rule, think of this class as you would a job.  If the Police Chief asks you to prepare a report for the Mayor, do you think either of them would accept or look favorably on your failure to complete the task on time?

Formal Writing Style

Everything that you write for me, unless I specify otherwise, is considered formal writing.  If you are uncomfortable with this, I strongly encourage you to consult sections 2.01 through 2.05 in the APA Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2001) and/or a standard writing and grammar textbook.  While not an exhaustive list, here are some stylistic concerns of which you should be aware.

1. Know your audience (they're not omniscient!).  You should write as though your audience consists of reasonably intelligent people, but who are not experts on the topic of your writing.  When you write, assume your reader has no knowledge of your topic.  This means that you must clearly explain everything and define relevant terms.  This works to your advantage, because it will produce a strong paper that can stand on its own and relies on your - not your reader's - expertise. 
2. Do not use first person (I, my, we, our, etc.).  Even if you are writing an opinion paper, you should not use first person. 
   Bad:  "I think that we should produce more widgets." 
   Better:  "Widget production should increase."
   Why:  Your argument sounds stronger when you remove the "hedge" ("I think"/I believe") and just come right out and state what you believe.  It also makes you ground your argument more deeply in research and logic rather than just expressing a subjective feeling ("I think").
3. Avoid conversational language.  Despite how I've written this handout, please do not write a "conversational" paper.  Formal writing is not the same as the spoken language!  Avoid contractions ("don't", "wasn't", etc.), slang ("that policy sucks"), and other informal writing.
4. Avoid jargon.  "The SARA model used in conjunction with CPTED can address issues of social capital and environmental criminology."  While this may be true (as I believe it is), it is unclear.  What is SARA? CPTED? social capital? environmental criminology?  Be sure that you define your terms in your paper, and take care to introduce all acronyms prior to their use (i.e., "The theory of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) states that..." Now that you've introduced CPTED, it's safe to use it in your paper!).
5. Organization matters.  Your paper should be written logically, with an introduction, meaningful transitions, and conclusion.  Stream of consciousness may have worked for James Joyce, but that doesn't mean that you should attempt it.  Use paragraphs (remembering that a paragraph consists of two or more related sentences) to organize your paper.  If you've written more than half a page without a paragraph break, that's probably too much.  Also, all papers should have an introduction, telling your reader what's coming, and a conclusion, summarizing what you've written.
6. Write in your own words.  Quotations should be used rarely and sparingly (more about quotations below).  If an author simply says something more elegantly and/or eloquently than you think you could, go on and use a direct quotation (remembering to indent if it is a "long quotation" -  forty or more words in length).  However, I'll get concerned if I see more than a few direct quotes in your paper.  What you should absolutely not do is just string together a series of direct quotations with a few transitions in between.  I expect you to be familiar enough with your topic and the literature about it that you can explain arguments in your own words (without plagiarizing!).  Sometimes it's tough to paraphrase and retain the author's meaning, but it's an important exercise in scholarship, allowing you to demonstrate that you truly understand something.  While I'm on the subject of quotations, it is important to note that just changing a word or two from the original source does not make a paraphrase!
7. Write with unbiased language.  Review the APA Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 1991, pages 61-76, and particularly Table 2.1) for further guidance here.  When writing about a particular group, be cognizant of the acceptable vs. unacceptable terminology.  In particular, be cautious of writing with sexist language (that is, referring to people or titles solely in the masculine voice).  A few examples:
   Poor Wording:  Policeman, homosexual, schizophrenic person
   Better Wording:  Police officer, gay or lesbian, person with schizophrenia
8. Write with precision.  Be clear and precise in your writing - the more so, the better.  Rephrase awkward passages.  Don't use vague or imprecise terms.
   Example:  "A lot of people believe..."  (How many is a lot? And how can I be sure "a lot" of people actually believe that?)
   Example:  "They did a study..."  (Who did a study?  Name the author - Smith (insert citation) studied domestic violence and found...)

Using Proper English

"The writer who neglects spelling and punctuation is quite arrogantly dumping a lot of avoidable work onto the reader, who deserves to be treated with more respect."  (Truss, 2005, p. 23)

In your papers, I am very interested in what you have to say (that's the content of the paper).  I am also very interested in how you say it (that's the form of the paper).  It is exceptionally important that, in addition to using proper formal writing, you also use proper spelling and grammar.  The typical comment I hear is, "but this isn't an English class!"  It's true...I don't teach in the English Department, but spelling and grammar still matter.  I truly hope that you will not allow yourself to sink to the level of mediocrity or apathy (neither is desirable) that is reflected by poorly written papers.  Remember, if you seek employment in criminal justice, you will write lots - reports, pre-sentence investigations, etc.  Would you tell your boss, a judge, or a prosecutor that it doesn't matter if your report is poorly written, because the courtroom isn't an English classroom?!  I certainly hope not - doing so would make you look bad, not to mention making other people's jobs difficult.  Selfishly, I want Radford University graduates to be known as well-educated and effective communicators!

If you are uncomfortable with your preparation in this regard, there are a number of places to turn for help.  You can (and perhaps, should) seek the guidance of a standard English grammar textbook if you are unsure about something.  Also, the APA Publication Manual contains many pointers and helpful tips in sections 2.06-2.12 and in Chapter 3 (American Psychological Association, 1991).  Finally, you may wish to take advantage of the Radford University Writing Center.  The Writing Center staff can help you proofread papers for content and form (but be advised, they will not write papers for you!).  Be aware, however, that taking a paper to the Writing Center does not absolve you from the responsibility of ensuring that you have written a proper paper - they may not catch all problems, and they may not be familiar with the specific guidelines that I provide in assignment sheets and in this document! Contact the Writing Center well in advance of the due date to allow time for the necessary revisions and make sure to provide the Writing Center staff with a copy of the specific guidelines for the writing assignment.

The following is absolutely not an exhaustive list.  However, I have outlined some of the more common student errors below.

1. Spelling.  Please, please, please proofread your paper for spelling errors!  Computer word processors typically have a spelling check.  Use it.  (However, you must be aware that some words - such as operationalize or multiplism - may not be included in spelling check libraries.  I look very unfavorably on spelling and grammatical errors, and they can reduce your grade drastically (one of my horror stories:  I once graded a paper that contained 50 spelling errors in two pages; it received an F).  Expect to lose points for each spelling error I find.    
2. Homophones.  Homophones are words that sound alike, but that are spelled differently and have different meanings.  Spelling checks may not catch these, because the words themselves are spelled correctly - it's the usage that's incorrect.  Perhaps the most prevalent error occurs between "it's" and "its".  In her book on the history of punctuation (and it's actually a very interesting read), Lynne Truss argues:  "The confusion of the possessive "its" (no apostrophe) with the contractive "it's" (with apostrophe) is an unequivocal sign of illiteracy and sets off a simple Pavlovian "kill" response in the average stickler.  The rule is: the word "it's" (with apostrophe) stands for "it is" or "it has".  If the word does not stand for "it is" or "it has" then what you require is "its".  This is extremely easy to grasp" (2003, p. 43).  I have a colleague (not at Radford University) who automatically fails all papers that confuse it's and its.  While I am not that strict, I do find it frustrating when such confusions are made.  Other problem words include to, too, and two; they're, their, and there; our and are; and others.  And, as Truss suggests, "...if we are grown-ups who have been through full-time education, we have no excuse for muddling them up" (2003, p. 62). 
3. The comma splice is evil and must be avoided.  A comma splice is when a comma is placed where a period or semicolon belong - basically, between two sentences.
   Bad:  The weather is bad, I'm staying inside.
   Better:  The weather is bad; I'm staying inside.
   Better:  The weather is bad.  I'm staying inside.
   Better:  The weather is bad, so I'm staying inside.
4. Agreement.  It is important to have agreement between subject and verb and between pronouns and subjects.  Singular goes with singular and plural goes with plural.
   Bad Subject-Verb Agreement:  The data is accurate.  (The word "data" is always plural!!)
   Better Subject-Verb Agreement:  The data are accurate.
   Bad Pronoun-Subject Agreement:  The police officer completed their reports.
   Better Pronoun-Subject Agreement:  The police officer completed his (or her) reports.
5. Italics.  All book, journal, movie, newspaper, and court case titles must be italicized.  Titles of individual articles or chapters should be placed in quotation marks.
6. Names.  Generally speaking, it is proper to refer to individuals by their last names - never use only the person's first name.
   Bad:  Joe's research found that crime has declined.
   Better:  Smith's research found that crime has declined.
7. Numbers.  Generally speaking, if a number is less than 10, write it out (e.g., one, two, etc.).  If a number is more than ten, or includes decimal places, write the numeral (e.g., 12, 3.5, etc.).  However, any number that starts a sentence should be written, even if it is 10 or above.
8. That vs. Who.  "Who" is associated with people, whereas "that" is associated with things.  An example will suffice here.
   Bad:  The people that did the study...
   Better:  The people who did the study...
   Acceptable:  The report that was filed...
9. Awkward sentence construction.  Your writing should be clear and easily readable.  This is the part of writing that you learn by doing.  Unfortunately, I can't tell you how to write clearly.  However, if I ever write "awkward" on a paper that I return to you, that means that the passage in question is not written clearly - either I can not understand it, or it is ambiguous, or it is otherwise problematic in such a way that correcting it involves more than a mere grammatical correction.  If I ever write that on your paper, make it your goal to figure out how to rework the sentence(s) in question to clarify the meaning.  My "rule of thumb":  If I have to read it more than twice to understand the meaning, it is most likely awkward!
10. These are just a few of the common errors I find in student papers.  Proofread your paper carefully for these and others.

Formatting the Paper

This section can be summed up in two words:  appearance counts.  Your paper should be professional in appearance.  Also, your paper should be exactly that - a paper.  Unless I specify otherwise, I want you to turn in hard copies of your paper rather than e-mailing them to me.  However, if there ever is occasion for you to e-mail me a paper, I will only accept it in one format:  As a Microsoft Word attachment.  I will not read papers that are e-mailed in e-mail text or that are attachments in other formats.  Here are some guidelines to follow as you prepare any out-of-class written assignment.

1. Printing.  I will not accepted handwritten papers.  There are no exceptions to this rule for any reason.  All papers should be neatly typed or printed on an inkjet or laser printer (no dot matrix printers, if there indeed are any still out there).  The paper should be white and the printing should be black.  Papers should only be printed on one side of the page.  Finally, the papers should be neat - no wrinkles, footprints, dogprints, coffee stains, etc.  If the paper is not properly printed, I will not grade it.
2. Stapling.  If you have a multi-page paper, it must be stapled in the upper left hand corner.  Please do not fold or paperclip the paper.  Also, unless I've requested it, you should not put your paper in a binder or a folder.  If papers are not stapled, I'll only grade the first page.
3. Font and Paragraph Formatting.  Your paper should be double-spaced, simply because it's easier for me to read and comment upon (not to mention it is an APA requirement).  Your font should be Times New Roman (or one that looks identical to it - for your reference, this paper is written in Times New Roman).  Your font should be 12 and your margins should be one inch on all sides.  Be advised, I am familiar with most tricks to make short papers seem longer and vice versa. 
4. Page Numbers.  If you have a multi-page paper, please number all pages, including the first page, in the upper-right-hand corner.
5. Name.  This is arguably the most important point.  Make sure your name is on the paper!  If it's not, it goes directly to the trash.  If I have requested a cover page, please include it and format it as I have directed.  If I have not specifically requested a cover page, it is not necessary to provide one.  In these cases, you should include the following information (and only the following information!) in the upper left-hand corner of your paper (double-spaced, of course):  Name (then skip a line) Class and Meeting Time (then skip a line) Assignment (then skip a line and begin the assignment).  Here's an example, except yours should be double-spaced:
   Stephen Owen
   CRJU-238, 2:00 MWF
   Sentencing Assignment 

Referencing Sources

It is essential that you properly document sources according to proper APA format.  Plagiarism will result in a failing grade for the course and an academic dishonesty complaint filed with the Dean of Students Office.  You can refer to the most recent edition of the Radford University Student Handbook for policies and procedures regarding plagiarism complaints.  You can be sure that I am very familiar with the provisions and that I am very serious about plagiarism.  It is your responsibility to know how to avoid it.  If you don't know, find out.  If you have questions, ask me!

As noted above, you must use APA format.  I will provide some of the basic rules below, but it is essential that you familiarize yourself fully with APA style.  You may refer to the APA Publication Manual (2001) (you'll find a copy at McConnell Library and in most bookstores) or to the library handout on APA style, available by following the "Handouts" link on my webpage.  It is your responsibility to learn and properly utilize APA citations!  If you have any questions about this very important component of paper writing, please consult me.

I expect you to follow citation standards in all written work - even if you take a fact or quote from the course textbook, you must properly cite it in order to avoid plagiarism.  Here are the basic rules:

1. If something is common knowledge, you do not need to cite it.  There are very few items that fall under this category.  However, if there is a particular fact that the majority of the general public (non-specialists in any particular field) would know, it's common knowledge.  Examples might include that the sky is blue, that the earth is the third planet from the sun, or that the Declaration of Independence was written in 1776.
2. If something is your own original argument or opinion, then you obviously don't need to cite it.  However, any background information that you provide to support your own argument or opinion must be cited.  Here are some examples -
   Doesn't Need Citation (assuming this is your own opinion):  "The death penalty should be abolished because it is unfair.  Punishments should not be arbitrary."
   Needs Citations:  "The death penalty should be abolished because it is unfair.  For instance, African-Americans are disproportionately sentenced to death (need citation for this fact!)
3. If you paraphrase something (taking something from the original source and putting it in your own words - not just changing one or two words) from an original source, then it must be parenthetically cited within the body of your paper.  The citation must include the author(s) and publication year.
   Example:  The program appears to deter crime (Smith, 1997).
   Example:  Sherman and Berk (1984) found that mandatory arrest reduces domestic violence recidivism.
   Example:  Citation styles are outlined in the APA Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2001).
4. If you directly quote something (that is, take it word-for-word from the original source), you must parenthetically cite.  The citation must include the author, year, and page number.     
   Example:  Research has found that "substantial reductions in recidivism are observed from the program" (Smith, 1999, p. 29).
   Example:  Smith (1999) has found that "substantial reductions in recidivism are observed from the program" (p. 29).
5. All sources that you cite in the paper - and only those sources cited in the paper - should appear on your Reference page.  The Reference page should be on its own page at the end of the paper.  It should be titled "References" (unless you have only one reference, in which case it would be "Reference").  There are many types of references you may use.  Here are some of the most common ones (consult the APA manual or the library handout for further details):
   Book:  Author's last name, First initial.  (Year).  Title (only capitalize first word or proper names).  City, State (abbreviation): Publisher.
   Book:  Jones, M. (1993).  The wonderful world of citations.  North Haverbrook, MA:  Booksrus Publishers.
   Journal:  Author's last name, First initial.  (Year). Title (only capitalize first word).  Journal (capitalize all words), volume (just a number), pages (just numbers).
   Journal:  Adams, T. & Smith, R. (1998). A study of citations.  Journal of Citations, 22, 293-303.
   Webpage:  Author.  (Year).  Title (only capitalize first word).  Retrieved Month Day, Year, from URL.
   Webpage:  Organization for Citations.  (2000).  How to cite.  Retrieved May 19, 2002, from http://www.citations.org.
   Webpage:  How to cite.  (2000).  Retrieved May 19, 2002, from http://www.citations.com. (example with no author)
   Webpage:  Organization for Citations.  (n.d.).  How to cite.  Retrieved May 19, 2002, from http://www.citations.net. (example with no date)

Grading Papers

Question:  What do you consider when grading papers?
Answer:  Content (what you say) and form (everything above).

A Closing Word

I would like to repeat what I said at the beginning of this document.  Writing is a learned behavior - you learn by doing.  My goal in writing this handout is to give you some guidance on what "good" academic writing looks like.  And, as always, please if you have questions, just ask me! 

References

* note: Some citations utilized in the examples above are not real; only those sources referenced below correspond to actual sources.  

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.).  Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Rosten, L. (1994). Leo Rosten's carnival of wit.  New York: Plume.

Sherman, L. W., & Berk, R. A. (1984). The specific deterrent effects of arrest for domestic assault. American Sociological Review, 49, 261-272.

Truss, L. (2005). Talk to the hand: The utter bloody rudeness of the world today, or six good reasons to stay home and bolt the door.  New York:  Gotham Books.

Truss, L. (2003). Eats, shoots & leaves: The zero tolerance approach to punctuation.  New York: Gotham Books.